Governance and Social Action in Sudan
In einem neuen Beitrag von Professor Karl Wohlmuth für die Sudan-Reihe des IWIM mit dem Titel „Wie kann der Konflikt im Sudan durch friedenstiftende Politiken und durch nachhaltig wirkende Reformen beendet werden?“ wird auf die Hintergründe der militärischen Auseinandersetzungen im Sudan seit dem 15. April 2023 eingegangen (vgl. zum Text der neuen Studie: PDF). Am 15. April 2023 begann die militärische Auseinandersetzung zwischen der SAF (Sudanese Armed Forces) und der RSF (Rapid Support Forces). Die beiden Militärführer und Generäle Burhan und Dagalo, die gemeinsam den Putsch gegen Präsident Al-Bashir im April 2019 durchführten, kämpfen nun um die militärische Vorherrschaft im Sudan. General Dagalo akzeptiert nicht die Unterordnung der RSF unter die SAF von General Burhan. Beide Armeeführer sind auch gegen eine Aufarbeitung des Erbes von den 30 Jahren der Herrschaft von Präsident Al-Bashir und seiner National Congress Party (NCP) im Sudan. Beide Armeeführer vereinte nach der Absetzung von Al-Bashir die Befürchtung, von einer konsequent agierenden Zivilregierung entmachtet und von ihren Besitztümern und Einkommensquellen enteignet zu werden. Vor dem Abkommen über eine von Militärs und Zivilisten gemeinsam getragene Übergangsregierung im Juli 2019 gab es am 3. Juni 2019 ein Massaker, verursacht durch die RSF, unter den Demonstranten, darunter vielen Frauen, die eine Zivilregierung durchsetzen wollten. Beide Armeeführer lehnten von Anfang an eine starke Beteiligung der Zivilgesellschaft an einer Übergangsregierung ab; sie fürchteten um ihren lukrativen Einfluss auf viele sudanesische Unternehmen (ob in Staatsbesitz oder in privater Hand) und auf die natürlichen Ressourcen des Sudan (Gold, andere Mineralien, Grund und Boden, etc.). Aber es waren auch Besorgnisse, für ihre militärischen und die Menschenrechte verachtenden Aktionen im Auftrag von Al-Bashir zur Verantwortung gezogen zu werden. Zudem sahen sich beide Armeeführer als wichtige Ansprechpartner für die Regierungen der Nachbarländer, der regionalen Player und der Global Player. Dazu kommt, dass General Burhan und die SAF auf der einen Seite und General Dagalo und die RSF auf der anderen Seite sich immer deutlicher hinsichtlich der Herkunft, der Ideologie und der Unterstützerkreise unterschieden. Es ging bei General Burhan immer stärker auch um die Rolle der traditionellen Eliten im Niltal und der Islamisten in der Armeeführung und um die Position der Anhänger des Ex-Präsidenten Al-Bashir und der National Congress Party (NCP). Bei General Dagalo ging es zunehmend um die Führungsrolle beim Militär, um die Integration der arabischen Milizen, um lukrative ökonomische Positionen und um die Beteiligung der Peripherie des Sudan an der politischen Machtverteilung. Diese Auseinanderentwicklung zwischen den beiden Armeeführungen beeinträchtigte zunehmend die Verhandlungen mit den verschiedenen Parteien und Akteuren der Zivilgesellschaft und führte letztlich auch zu den militärischen Auseinandersetzungen seit April 2023.
Die bewaffneten Konflikte im Sudan verbreiten sich von der Hauptstadt Khartum in die Peripherie des Landes
Description of the photo: In this photo provided by Maheen S., smoke fills the sky in Khartoum, Sudan, near Doha International Hospital on April 21, 2023. (Maheen S via AP)
Quelle: Why the conflict in Sudan matters to the rest of the world, The Times Of Israel, 22 April 2023; Link: https://www.timesofisrael.com/why-the-conflict-in-sudan-matters-to-the-rest-of-the-world/
In diesem Beitrag werden wichtige Etappen der Entwicklung im Sudan seit April 2019 diskutiert, um zu verstehen, welche Kräfte seither innerhalb des Militärs und innerhalb der Zivilgesellschaft präsent sind und dominieren. Die Studie zeigt auch auf, dass die Zerklüftung der Zivilgesellschaft ein Problem ist, das schon vor der Unabhängigkeit des Sudan bestand und seit der Unabhängigkeit des Sudan im Jahre 1956 immer bestimmender geworden ist. Es ist daher dringend notwendig, zu fragen, wie ein neues und produktives Verhältnis zwischen dem Militär bzw. dem Sicherheitsapparat einerseits und der zerklüfteten Parteienlandschaft und Zivilgesellschaft des Sudan andererseits gefunden werden kann. Nach der „Sudanesischen Revolution“ des Jahres 2019 mit dem Sturz von Al-Bashir und den Ereignissen im Sudan bis 2023 fragt sich, wie ein politischer Prozess im Sudan aussehen kann, der zur Dominanz der Zivilgesellschaft gegenüber den Militärs in einer zukünftigen Regierung führen kann. Es zeigt sich, dass bisher interne und externe Kräfte immer wieder so im Sudan zusammenwirken, dass Reformschritte abgebrochen und Friedensinitiativen konterkariert werden.
Bibliographische Informationen:
SERG (Sudan Economy Research Group) Discussion Papers, IWIM, Herausgeber der Reihe: Professor Karl Wohlmuth; Link zur SERG-Discussion Papers-Reihe: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/sudan_economy_research_group/
Publikation: Heft Nummer 45, Juni 2023, Autor: Karl Wohlmuth, Universität Bremen:
Wie kann der Konflikt im Sudan durch friedenstiftende Politiken und durch nachhaltig wirkende Reformen beendet werden?
Von: Karl Wohlmuth, Universität Bremen, Juni 2023
Download: PDF
Good news from the Research Group on African Development Perspectives Bremen. Volume 23 of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook with the theme “Business Opportunities, Start-ups and Digital Transformation in Africa” was now released by LIT Publisher (see the link to the African Development Perspectives Yearbook: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/index.php?content=345&lng=de). This edition contains a Unit on Digital Transformation, Digital Entrepreneurship, and Digital Business Opportunities in Africa – General Issues, a Unit on New Business Opportunities created by the Digital Transformation in West Africa, a Unit on Digital Transformation in South Africa with Examples from the Free State, and a Unit on Book Reviews and Book Notes. While volume 24 is more focussed on the macroeconomic policy side of African countries, the volume 23 is related to microeconomic issues in African countries, especially digital entrepreneurship. The African Development Perspectives Yearbook was transformed some time ago to an open access edition and to a fully peer-reviewed publication. It is considered as the leading English-language annual on Africa in Germany. LIT Publisher intends to launch the book at the ninth ECAS (European Conference On African Studies) meeting in Cologne on African Futures, held at 31 May – 3 June 2023. The Book Exhibit at ECAS Cologne 2023 has the link: https://ecasconference.org/2023/exhibit. It is interesting to note that prior to the volume 23 on Digital Entrepreneurship the Research Group on African Development Perspectives Bremen has published two volumes of the Yearbook on topics of entrepreneurship and private sector development in Africa: Vol. 9 (2002/2003): African Entrepreneurship and Private Sector Development, and Vol. 10 (2004): Private and Public Sectors: Towards a Balance. These two volumes were well received and led to important policy discussions. The Festschrift for the African Development Perspectives Yearbook contains a lot of additional information about the philosophy and the working modalities of the Research Group on African Development Perspectives; see the link: https://media.suub.uni-bremen.de/handle/elib/4652?locale=de, and for the direct download: https://media.suub.uni-bremen.de/bitstream/elib/4652/1/Wohlmuth-Festschrift.pdf.
Cover des neuen Bandes des African Development Perspectives Yearbook Volume 23, 2022/23
Quelle: LIT Verlag mit dem Link: https://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-91441-5
The publishing work for the African Development Perspectives Yearbook goes on. The editors of Volume 24 of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook could close successfully the Call for Papers for this new publication project. Guest Editors and Authors submitted their Proposals and Abstracts on the theme “Strengthening the Fiscal Capacity and Using new Tools and Strategies for Domestic Resource Mobilization of African Countries”. After a rigorous selection of submissions we have secured now enough material to publish a Unit on General Issues of Fiscal Capacity, a Unit on Comparative Analyses of Fiscal Capacity for Selected African Countries, Units on the Fiscal Capacity and Resource Mobilization in Senegal and in Sudan, and a Unit on Book Reviews and Book Notes. We will then have five Units in volume 24 of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook, guided by Guest Editors and the Editorial Staff:
Unit 1: General Issues on Fiscal Capacity and Fiscal Policy in Africa (Unit Editors: Guest Editor/Karl Wohlmuth)
Unit 2: Country Case Studies on Fiscal Capacity and Resource Mobilization in Africa (Guest Editor/Karl Wohlmuth)
Unit 3: Fiscal Capacity and Resource Mobilization in Senegal (Guest Editors)
Unit 4: Fiscal Capacity and Resource Mobilization in Sudan (Samia Nour/Karl Wohlmuth)
Unit 5: Reviews and Book Notes (Samia Nour/Karl Wohlmuth)
The research teams for the Units and Contributions are now working on their first drafts. The first draft and then the final draft will be peer-reviewed and assessed if suitable for the new African Development Perspectives Yearbook volume. The basic idea behind the theme is to investigate the constraints of domestic resource mobilization in times of multiple crises in Africa, because of the climate crisis, the Corona crisis, the crisis caused by the Russian war of aggression against the Ukraine, the global food and energy crises, the crises of global inflation and slowing growth, and the many other crises because of natural disasters and catastrophes. In times of a transition to a new world order since the Joint Declaration of China and Russia on February 4, 2022, there is a vital need to look deeply at the domestic base of fiscal resources and to assess carefully if it is sustainable, expandable, and manageable along the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the Global Agenda 2030.
Professor Karl Wohlmuth has published an essay on the Russian War of Aggression against the Ukraine and on the implications for the world economy and the world order. In five parts key issues are discussed: the role of innovative sanctions coalitions against Russia; the financing of the Russian war via illegal transnational non-state actors, like the Wagner Group which is operating in resource-rich African countries and fighting in the Donbass region of Ukraine; the impacts of the war on the global political economy and for the establishment of a new world order; three groups of action programmes to control the illegal transnational non-state actors, to compensate the Global South for the collateral damages of the war, and to address the severe losses for the seventeen sustainable development goals (SDGs) due to the war; finally, the impacts of the war and of the Joint Declaration of Russia and China from February 4, 2022 on a new world order are assessed, with a focus on Germany and Europe in regard of the “Zeitenwende”. Also, a blog was published in various versions to look at the role of the Wagner Group in resource-rich African countries, and their tools for the illegal financing of the Russian war in the Ukraine via gold exports from Sudan to fill the foreign exchange reserves of Russia.
The recent research activities on Sudan and South Sudan should be mentioned. The two country-information essays by Professor Karl Wohlmuth on “Sudan” and “South Sudan” which are published in a Handbook on the Near East and Northern Africa were well received by the readers. These are essays which focus on various dimensions (history, economy, society, politics, culture, governance, and the international relations) of the two countries. On Sudan, Professors Karl Wohlmuth and Samia Mohamed Nour have jointly started a research cooperation on the “New Macroeconomics for Sudan in Times of Global Multiple Crises” towards a Unit on Sudan’s economy for the next volume 24 of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook. This research will be part of the volume 24 of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook with a focus on “Strengthening the Fiscal Capacity of African Countries”. Professor Samia Nour has reported for the Sudan Economy Research Group (SERG) of IWIM about her immense research activities on Sudan and the Arab world. Professor Karl Wohlmuth has considered the case of Sudan also in his new working papers and blogs about the Russian War of Aggression against the Ukraine; military and militia leaders of Sudan have exchanged domestically mined gold for weapons and support from the Wagner Group to consolidate their autocratic regime after the coup of October 2021 against the civil side of the government. The blog by Karl Wohlmuth on “Putin, the Wagner Group, the gold of Sudan, and the sanctions on Russia” has received great interest; many colleagues from universities and institutes, such as from the LMU Munich, responded with deep comments and interesting questions, and gave recommendations for further research work.
Professor Karl Wohlmuth was invited under the “Indo-German Joint Research Collaboration” for a research and teaching visit to the Central University of Punjab, India. Professor Wohlmuth is planning a cooperation with researchers from Indian universities for a further volume of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook with the theme “Africa’s Development and the Transitions in the Global South”. A cooperation with Dr. Aydin Findikci, a lecturer in Munich and former student from Bremen University, is intended to publish a report on the “Economic Policies and Strategies for Turkey of the Recep Tayyip Erdogan Autocratic Government”. Professor Karl Wohlmuth was nominated in 2022 by the Falling Walls Foundation Breakthrough of the Year programme which is managed by the Falling Walls Foundation in Berlin. Professor Karl Wohlmuth was invited by Professor Dr. Jutta Günther to attend her Inauguration Meeting to take over the position of a University President (Rektorin) of the University of Bremen on September 6, 2022 at 18:00 pm. Professor Dr. Jutta Günther is working towards the establishment of the University of Bremen as a “Climate University”. As climate policy action is a focus of research in most of the faculties, there is a huge potential for interdisciplinary work. This work is a basic principle since the start of the University of Bremen in 1971. Political representatives from the Freie Hansestadt Bremen (Free Hanseatic City of Bremen) attended the inauguration. The Keynote Lecture was therefore on the theme “Global Value Chains and Climate Change”. In an Open Letter on Science Cooperation seventy (70) experts doing researches in cooperation with partners in the Global South (also Professor Karl Wohlmuth) have requested new forms of science cooperation between German funding institutions, the German research partners, and the researchers/research institutes in the Global South. Too often the science cooperation with the Global South is limited by bureaucratic requirements and legal constraints, and also by the lack of direct funding of researchers/research institutions in the Global South. As Professor Karl Wohlmuth had a lot of such cooperations with research institutions in Africa, supported by DFG, DAAD, FES, Federal and State Ministries, Peace Foundations, Volkswagen Foundation and Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, he shares the critical views in the Open Letter and thinks that it is necessary to reflect continually on the forms and modalities for an innovative scientific cooperation with research institutions and researchers in the Global South. The Open Letter seems now to get something moving in Germany.
Attending Virtual Conferences – On the Russian War of Aggression against the Ukraine, on Climate Change and Adaptation, on Key Technologies, and on Transition and Development Issues: Professor Karl Wohlmuth was invited to various virtual conferences by the OECD Berlin Centre (on topics such as climate policy, employment in Central and Eastern Europe, key technologies in Germany and Europe, trade as a driver for resilient and sustainable supply chains, trade policy in challenging times, industrial subsidies and levelling the playing field, and skills shortages and real wages under pressure), by the wiiw/Wiener Institute für Internationale Wirtschaftsvergleiche (on topics such as developments in Central and Eastern Europe), by the Life & Peace Institute/LPI (on issues such as the impacts of the African Continental Free Trade Area/AfCFTA on the Horn of Africa), by the BEN/Bremer entwicklungspolitisches Netzwerk e. V. (on topics such as choosing of producing feed or food), by the HWWI/Hamburgisches WeltWirtschaftsInstitut (on issues such as structural change and sustainability in the context of crises in Northern Germany and the prospects of the world economy in 2023), by the organizers of the Godley-Tobin Memorial Lecture given by Paul Krugman (on The enduring relevance of Tobinomics), by the Instituto Cervantes (on hopes for a better future of Nicaragua), by the Schader-Stiftung: Darmstädter Tage der Transformation 2022 (on the Socio-economic transformation of our society towards sustainable development), by the FES (on topics such as taxes in times of crises, policies against the global inflation, and on global supply chain issues), and by the DIE/IDOS, and the DIE/IfW (with topics such as up-scaling co-benefits of sustainable consumption for development, charting a roadmap towards deep decarbonization, and Africa’s regional and global integration, with lessons from the past and implications for the future). Especially important were the many conferences by the OECD Berlin Centre on the Russian War against the Ukraine, to look carefully at the economic consequences for Europe and the World Economy, at the impact of the sanctions on the growth of Russia and the world economy, at the overall growth, social and environment effects of the war, at the effects of the refugees moving from Ukraine to Western Europe, at the military and economic developments in the whole NATO area, and at the perspectives of the new world order after the end of the war. Very relevant to our researches and timely was the invitation by the Schader Foundation to take part at the Schader-Forum “Energiepolitik in Zeiten des Krieges” (Energy Policy in Times of War) on October 28, 2022 in Darmstadt.
The editors of Volume 24 of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook could close successfully the Call for Papers. Guest Editors and Authors submitted their Proposals and Abstracts on the theme “Strengthening the Fiscal Capacity of African Countries”. After a rigorous selection of submissions we have now enough material to publish a Unit on General Issues, a Unit on Comparative Analyses of selected African Countries, Units on Senegal and on Sudan, and a Unit on Book Reviews and Book Notes. The research themes are now working on their first drafts. The first draft and the final draft will then be reviewed and assessed if suitable for the new Yearbook volume. Meanwhile volume 23 with the theme “Business Opportunities, Start-ups and Digital Transformation in Africa” is published. This edition contains a Unit on Digital Transformation, Digital Entrepreneurship, and Digital Business Opportunities in Africa – General Issues, a Unit on New Business Opportunities created by the Digital Transformation in West Africa, a Unit on Digital Transformation in South Africa with Examples from the Free State, and a Unit on Book Reviews and Book Notes. While volume 24 is more focussed on the macroeconomic policy side of African countries, the volume 23 is related more to microeconomic issues in African countries. The African Development Perspectives Yearbook was transformed some time ago to an open access edition and to a fully peer-reviewed publication. It is considered as the leading English-language annual on Africa in Germany.
Professor Karl Wohlmuth from the University of Bremen has published a working paper on the Russian war of aggression against the Ukraine and its impacts on sanctions policies of the West, on the economic effects of the war and of the sanctions on the Ukraine and on Russia, on the emergence of private non-state actors (NSAs) at global scale, on the collateral damages in the Global South through the war, and on the effects of the war on the realization of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the Global Agenda 2030. The new working paper was published as the number 130 of the Blue Series Discussion Papers of IWIM, and it has a country focus on Sudan as a case study for the role of the Russian Wagner Group in smuggling out the gold mined in the country (see for the number 130 of the “Berichte aus dem Weltwirtschaftlichen Colloquium der Universität Bremen”: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/blaue_reihe/). Professor Karl Wohlmuth has also written a Blog on the activities of the Wagner Group in Sudan since 2017 (see for a download: https://weltneuvermessung.wordpress.com/tag/karl-wohlmuth/). After the Coup of the military and militia commanders of Sudan in October 2021 with the removal of the civil society part of the transitional joint civil-military government, the international community has tried to support the reinstallation of a civilian government in Sudan. There was only a partial success of these efforts up to now, although in December 2022 the military/militia side has agreed to a Framework Agreement to support steps towards a return of a civilian government in Sudan. The recent United Nations Security Council Meeting Report by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head of the United Nations Integrated Transition Assistance Mission in Sudan (UNITAMS) has however highlighted that still some severe obstacles remain to be solved along the path of the Framework Agreement. It is mainly the security sector reform that is an obstacle towards the implementation of the political transition to a civilian government in Sudan (see the latest UN Security Council Meeting Report on Sudan: https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15236.doc.htm).
Russia and the Wagner Group are still active in Sudan and support the military side, the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), and the militia side, the Rapid Support Forces (RSF). As the commanders of these troops are controlling most of the economic sectors in Sudan (manufacturing, mining, trade and other services, commercial agriculture, and land and real estate businesses), a true security sector reform would require a complete removal of these forces from their controlling positions of all these economic sectors. This process is still not in sight (see the analysis of the “Sudanese Revolution” of April 2019 and the implications of the “deep state” in Sudan by Professor Karl Wohlmuth: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/artikel/992/). The obstacles for a democratic control of the economic sectors in Sudan were discussed in a lecture by Professor Karl Wohlmuth (see: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/files/dateien/1819_wohlmuth_buergerbewegung_sudan_mainz_2020.pdf). The next few months up to June 2023 may be important for the Framework Agreement to be accepted or rejected for implementation. Linked to the Framework Agreement is also the Juba Peace Agreement (the agreement of the transitional government of Sudan with various rebel movements in Darfur states, South Kordofan state, Blue Nile state, and in Eastern parts of Sudan); so, the Juba Peace Agreement is also at stake as the rebel movements claim participation rights in their local areas. We find various informed reports on the implementation of the Framework Agreement (in africanews: https://www.africanews.com/2023/01/13/signatories-of-sudans-framework-agreement-meet-to-broker-more-inclusive-peace-deal/; by the European Union Delegation to the Republic of the Sudan: https://www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/sudan/friends-sudan-group-statement-signature-framework-agreement_en; by the Crisis Group: https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/sudan/critical-window-bolster-sudans-next-government; and by VOA (Voice of America) News: https://www.voanews.com/a/sudanese-officials-to-speed-up-forming-civilian-government/7011102.html). The official spokesman of the Sudanese civil society part of the Framework Agreement outlines the tasks ahead, such as holding conferences to work on constitutional and transitional documents, but there are many civil society groups and individuals in Sudan who are sceptical that the other side on the table will never give up their economic positions and the military power. So, sanctions against the SAF/RSF military groups from Western powers remain still valid as they were since years.
Transitional Justice and Peacebuilding in Sudan – A Panel Discussion by the Life & Peace Institute (LPI) on March 14, 2023
Professor Karl Wohlmuth was invited by LPI to a panel discussion on “Exploring Transitional Justice (TJ) and Peacebuilding in Sudan” (see on the conference programme: PDF Programme Agenda - Panel Discussion onTJ, and on the Biography of the Panellists: PDF Biography of Panel Speakers). The panel discussion presented, according to LPI, the most current evidence and knowledge on the relationship between TJ and peacebuilding; it examined the existing local methods of dispute resolution and reconciliation in Sudan; and it discussed the roles of different actors, including civil society, and their role in supporting the development and implementation of context-specific TJ processes in Sudan. The Life & Peace Institute (see the website about their activities: https://life-peace.org/) is based in Uppsala, Sweden and aims at awareness-raising, information, policy engagement, and research work on the Horn of Africa (covered in a broader definition, including also Sudan and South Sudan). The LPI has a strategic plan for their work (see about the three strategic pillars : https://assets.ctfassets.net/jzxyrkiixcim/4CM46AnhYy1jcDK7I6rXI1/64580c3d7bbbcc5d28bd64252d1563c6/LPI-STRATEGIC_PLAN-Spread-Nov99.pdf). The three strategic pillars are: Inclusive engagement for peace (Strategic Pillar 1), Policy engagement and awareness-raising (Strategic Pillar 2), and Collaborative learning to enhance practice and policy (Strategic Pillar 3). Professor Karl Wohlmuth is since years collaborating with the LPI on Sudan.
Cooperation with Professor Samia Mohamed Nour from the University of Khartoum - On Research Projects and with the Editorial Group of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook
Very intensive is the cooperation with Professor Samia Mohamed Nour from the University of Khartoum. She reported again a great number of research projects and publications and works with the editorial group of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook on volume 24 (2024/2025) to submit to the theme of the volume on “Fiscal Capacity and Resource Mobilization in Africa – New Strategies and New Instruments” a full Unit on “New Macroeconomic Policies in Sudan in times of Multiple Crises”; focus is on the macroeconomic implications of the Post-COVID-19 situation, the Climate Crisis, the Collateral Damages of the Russian War against the Ukraine, the Global Energy and Food Crises, and the Global Inflation. She is also doing since many years her great job as the Editor for Book Reviews and Book Notes of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook. She joined the Editorial Group when working with us on Volume 20 (2018) of the Yearbook with the theme "Science, Technology and Innovation Policies for Inclusive Growth in Africa – General Issues and Country Cases". Volume 24 is now on the theme of identifying, measuring, strengthening, and mobilizing the fiscal capacity of the African countries through deep policy reforms. Professor Karl Wohlmuth and Professor Samia Mohamed Nour are the two editors of the Unit on Sudan; they will cooperate with leading Sudanese researchers on writing key essays about the new macroeconomic policies in Sudan to mobilize the fiscal resources at central, provincial, and local levels which are needed for development in times of multiple crises.
Professor Samia Mohamed Nour reported in February 2023 about her recent Research Activities:
- Nour, Samia (2023), Economic Consultant and Project Leader for the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH/German Agency for International Cooperation GmbH, GIZ Research Project on ‘Employment and Labour Market Analysis (ELMA) in Sudan’, November 2022 - May 2023.
- Nour, Samia (2023), “Issues of inclusion and capabilities for establishing the knowledge societies and the potential role of open science in the Arab States”, A Consultancy Research Report prepared for the United Nations Educational, Scientific And Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UNESCO Regional Bureau for Sciences in the Arab States, Cairo, Egypt, July 2021 – November 2021, Forthcoming 2023.
- Nour, Samia (2023), “Innovation and Technological Aspects in the Islamic World”, Chapter 3 in ICESCO Consultancy Research Report: “The Possible Futures of the Islamic World in the fields of Education, Sciences, Culture and Technologies”, Islamic World Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICESCO), headquartered in Rabat, Morocco, April – November 2021, Forthcoming 2023.
- Nour, Samia (2022), ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on Households and Firms in the MENA Region: the case of Sudan,’ Agence Française de Développement (AFD), Research Paper No 250, Agence Française de Développement (AFD), Paris, France, May 2022, pp. 1-60. Link: https://www.afd.fr/en/ressources/impact-covid-19-households-and-firms-mena-region-case-sudan
- Nour, Samia (2022), “South-South Ideas paper on Digital Transformation: South-South Cooperation, Technology and Digital Transformation: the case of Arab Countries”, United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), New York, USA, September 13, 2022, pp.1-68. Link: https://www.ssc-globalthinkers.org/topic/south-south-ideas-cooperation-technology-and-digital-transformation-case-arab-countries; this is a Research Project in collaboration with the Economic Research Forum (ERF) for the Arab countries and Turkey, the United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) with the title: “South-South Global Thinkers – A Global Coalition of Think Tank Networks for South-South Cooperation (SSC)”, July 2021- July 2022.
- Nour, Samia (2022), ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Labour Market: The Case of Sudan’, Economic Research Forum (ERF) for the Arab countries and Turkey, Policy Brief Number PB 87, pp. 1-11, August 2022, ERF, Cairo, Egypt; Link: https://erf.org.eg/publications/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-middle-eastern-and-north-african-labor-markets-glimmers-of-progress-but-persistent-problems-for-vulnerable-workers-a-year-into-the-pandemic/.
- Nour, Samia (2022), ‘The Impact of Covid-19 on the Labour Market in Sudan’, The Forum: ERF Policy Portal. October 25, 2022. Link: https://theforum.erf.org.eg/2022/10/25/impact-covid-19-labour-market-sudan/)
- Krafft, Caroline, Nour, Samia, and Mahjoub, Ebaidalla (2022), ‘‘Jobs and Growth in North Africa in the COVID-19 Era: the case of Sudan 2018-2021”, The Forum: ERF Policy Portal. 7 November 2022, Link: https://theforum.erf.org.eg/2022/11/07/jobs-growth-north-africa-covid-19-era-sudan-2018-21/.
- ERF- ILO First Report on Jobs and Growth in North Africa (2021); the report was edited by Prof. Ragui and other colleagues; the project was supported by the International Labour Office (ILO) and the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA); Professor Nour was pleased to contribute as a co-author to the Sudan Country Chapter. Link: https://www.ilo.org/africa/information-resources/publications/WCMS_809435/lang--en/index.htm
- ERF- ILO Second Regional Report on Jobs and Growth in North Africa (2022); the report was edited by Prof. Ragui and other colleagues; the project was supported by the International Labour Office (ILO) and the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA); Professor Nour was pleased to contribute as the co-author of Sudan Country Chapter). https://www.ilo.org/africa/information-resources/publications/WCMS_809435/lang--en/index.htm
Important Conferences and Contributions by Professor Samia Mohamed Nour:
She also reported about her participation at the UNECA conference in Marrakech, Morocco (November 1-2, 2022). The ECA Sub-Regional Office for North Africa (SRO-NA) and the ECA Sub-Regional Office for West Africa (SRO-WA) were thankful for her participation in the expert meeting on the theme: "Resilience to crises and sustainability of development in North and West Africa", a conference that was held at the "Four Seasons Hotel" on November 1 and 2, 2022 in Marrakech (Kingdom of Morocco). There will be a report following from this event.
It was a great pleasure for her to participate as an invited Sudanese guest and speaker at the final symposium of the Resilience in Urban Sudan (RUS) research project that was held on 25 - 26 August 2022 at Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden. The RUS project is funded by the Swedish Research Council (SRC) under the Research Project Grant within Development Research. The Invitation to the Conference with the Call for Papers (PDF Malmö University) and the Programme of the Conference (PDF Programme RUS) are attached.
Great interest raised her ERF Policy Brief No. 87, August 2022 (PDF ERF Policy Brief ERF PB 87): “The Impact of Covid-19 on the MENA Labor Market: The Case of Sudan”. It is based on the attached AFD Research Paper (PDF AFD-ERF - Research Paper) entitled ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on Households and Firms in the MENA Region: the case of Sudan’. This paper was conducted in the context of the research project of the Economic Research Forum (ERF) under the Agence Française de Développement (AFD) Programme titled: “The Impact of COVID-19 on Households and Firms in the MENA Region: the case of Sudan”, Number 250, May 2022. The research project was fully supported by a research grant in cooperation with the ERF (Cairo, Egypt) and the Agence Française de Développement (AFD, Paris, France).
In einem neuen Beitrag geht der Bremer Wirtschaftsprofessor und Sudanforscher auf die informellen Netzwerke ein, die Putin nutzt, um die Goldreserven Russlands aufzustocken und so die Sanktionen des Westens zum Teil zu kompensieren (vgl. die PDF: Putin-Sanktionen-8-2022). Für die Entwicklungspolitik gegenüber Afrika ergeben sich wichtige Schlussfolgerungen, insbesondere auch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland und die Europäische Union. Der Weser-Kurier aus Bremen hat eine Kurzfassung der Studie in der Papierausgabe vom 28. August 2022 auf der Seite 2 mit dem Titel „Putin finanziert Kriege über informelle Netzwerke“ veröffentlicht. Eine Online-Veröffentlichung zu dem Thema erfolgte am 27. August 2022; Zugang unter dem Link: https://www.weser-kurier.de/politik/ausland/putin-finanziert-seine-kriegsoperationen-ueber-informelle-netzwerke-doc7mhlaa9go1e9y7onnfx
Kurzfassung der wesentlichen Thesen:
Putin, die Sanktionen und das Gold Afrikas
Karl Wohlmuth, Universität Bremen
Der Angriffskrieg Russlands gegen die Ukraine dauert nun schon mehr als sechs Monate. Die Europäische Union ist dabei, ein siebentes Sanktionspaket zu schnüren. Doch Putin rühmt die Stärke der russischen Wirtschaft. Im Westen gibt es daher Zweifel an der Wirksamkeit der Sanktionen. Studien zeigen aber, dass Russland überaus wirksamen Sanktionen gegenübersteht. Der Propagandaapparat des Kremls zeichnet ein Bild der Wirtschaftsentwicklung, das durch umfassende Manipulation von Daten zustande kommt. Rosstat, die Statistikbehörde des Landes, wurde dem Propagandaapparat des Kremls eingegliedert. Daten über die Wirtschaftslage werden auf vielfältige Weise manipuliert, etwa durch Prognosen, die sich auf Ausgangsdaten aus den ersten Kriegstagen beziehen oder durch die selektive Präsentation von Datenreihen mit positiven Entwicklungstrends. Die sorgfältige Analyse der offiziellen Daten ergibt ein Bild, das bereits umfassende und auch unumkehrbare Wirkungen der Sanktionen zeigt.
Russland hat bereits wichtige Positionen auf den internationalen Rohstoffmärkten (vor allem bei Gas, Öl, und Kohle) verloren. Die Importabhängigkeit praktisch aller industrieller Wertschöpfungsketten von westlichen Inputs und Technologien bedeutet, dass die Produktionsverluste Russlands größer werden. Die Strategie der Importsubstitution ist schon gescheitert. Der Exodus von wesentlichen Teilen der russischen Produktionsbasis (Unternehmen, Kapital, und Talente) beschleunigt sich. Mehr als 1000 international operierende Unternehmen haben das Land verlassen. Die makroökonomische Politik kann weder die Inflationsbekämpfung noch die Strukturanpassung erreichen. Die Abkoppelung von den internationalen Finanzmärkten führt zu drastischen Veränderungen auf den heimischen Finanzmärkten, da eine lange Dauer des Krieges und eine stabile Sanktionsfront eingepreist werden. Die Sanktionspolitik des Westens ist effektiv, weil ein umfassender Strategieansatz dahintersteht. Expertengremien evaluieren die Wirksamkeit der Sanktionen.
Putin geht nicht von einem Zerbrechen des westlichen Sanktionssystems aus, sondern nutzt informelle Netzwerke, um seine Kriegsoperationen zu finanzieren. Kurz nach der Annexion der Krim im Jahr 2014 hat er den Sudan als „Schlüssel nach Afrika“ ausgemacht, um ein Netzwerk des Goldschmuggels zur Umgehung der Wirkung von Sanktionen zu etablieren. Diese Netzwerke sollen helfen, die Goldreserven der russischen Zentralbank aufzustocken. Die „Gruppe Wagner“, verharmlosend als privates Söldner- und Militärunternehmen bezeichnet, ist nunmehr in 23 afrikanischen Ländern aktiv. Die Gruppe hat die Funktion, Militärregime zu stabilisieren und lokale Armeen auszurüsten; als Gegenleistung werden Russland illegale Einnahmen aus der Überwachung von Bergbauaktivitäten und Anteile aus dem Schmuggel von hochwertigen Mineralien wie Gold zugesichert. Die „Gruppe Wagner“ hat im Sudan ein internationales Netz des Goldschmuggels etabliert; seit dem Putsch vom Oktober 2021 unterstützen die Spitzenmilitärs des Sudan ganz offen dieses „Geschäftsmodell“. Gold im Wert von Milliarden Dollars wird – vorbei an staatlichen sudanesischen Stellen und der Zentralbank - aus dem Land geschmuggelt. Dieses Geschäftsmodell wird auch in anderen afrikanischen Ländern praktiziert. Diese informellen Netzwerke sind für die Finanzierung des Ukrainekriegs und anderer Militäroperationen Russlands enorm wichtig geworden. Goldtransaktionen können durch Sanktionen wesentlich schwerer unterbunden werden. Die Sanktionen gegen die „Gruppe Wagner“ durch den Westen sind bisher wirkungslos geblieben.
Für eine neue globale Ordnung ergeben sich bedeutsame Herausforderungen. Bei drei Themen (Stabilisierung einer kooperativen und effektiven Sanktionspolitik bei Angriffskriegen, Ausgestaltung von Politiken für Reparationen und den Wiederaufbau zerstörter Regionen nach dem Ende von Angriffskriegen, Gestaltung einer neuen Sicherheitsarchitektur zur Verhinderung zukünftiger Angriffskriege und zur Vermeidung existenzieller globaler Gefährdungen) besteht offensichtlich ein immenser internationaler Handlungsbedarf. Der Weckruf des Aggressionskrieges von Russland gegen die Ukraine zeigt, dass neben der Klimakrise auch die Gefahren durch nichtprovozierte Angriffskriege neu zu bewerten sind, da die Existenz des Planeten Erde auf dem Spiel steht. Die Finanzierung von Angriffskriegen und Militäroperationen durch informelle Netzwerke und durch illegale Rohstofftransaktionen aus Entwicklungsregionen wie Afrika zeigt auch, dass die Stabilität des internationalen Finanzsystems neu austariert werden muss. Entwicklungsfeindliche „Geschäftsmodelle“, wie von der Gruppe Wagner in Afrika im Auftrag des Kremls praktiziert, wirken deutlich gegen alle 17 Nachhaltigkeitsziele, die 2015 vereinbart wurden.
Professor Samia Nour from the Economics Faculty of the Khartoum University in Sudan has done important research on the economic impacts of COVID-19 in her country. Her report “The Impact of COVID-19 on Households and Firms in the MENA Region: the case of Sudan” is part of an ERF (Economic Research Forum) Research Project: “The Impact of COVID-19 on Households and Firms in the MENA Region”, and it allows comparative analyses for MENA Region countries. Professor Nour supports the Sudan Studies at Bremen and is Book Reviews and Book Notes Editor of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook. Professor Nour will provide for a short Policy Brief version of the study for the SERG Discussion Papers at IWIM.
Professor Samia Nour writes about the content of her study (see the full study for download: Sudan Final Revised Draft – The Impact of COVID-19): “This paper discusses the impacts of COVID-19 on households and firms in Sudan as a case study of the MENA countries. The research applies descriptive and comparative approaches and uses new primary data obtained from the ERF (Economic Research Forum) COVID-19 MENA Monitor Household Survey (2021) and from the World Bank and Sudan Central Bureau of Statistics High Frequency Survey on COVID-19 (2020). Our results with data from the World Bank Survey on COVID-19 (2020) show the impact of COVID-19 on the employment status that appears from the loss of jobs for the majority and nearly two thirds of households during June – July 2020. We explain that the main reason for the households‘ loss of jobs, additional unemployment, and even the change of jobs was because of business / government closures due to coronavirus legal restrictions. The impact of COVID-19 also appears from the loss of payments for nearly a fifth of households, the loss of partial payment for nearly half of households, and the loss and the reduction of households‘ means of livelihood or sources of income since mid-March 2020 from non-farm family business, income from properties, investments or savings, and income from family farming, livestock or fishing. The impact of COVID-19 on micro, small and medium size enterprises appears to result from temporary or permanent closures of establishments, from substantial decreases in sales, or from stagnation in sales.
Our results from the ERF COVID-19 MENA Monitor Survey data (2021) show the impacts of COVID-19 on the labour market and on the working conditions that appear to result from the increase in temporary or permanent layoffs/suspension of workers, reduced working hours, reduced wage payments, and delays in wage payment for workers in Sudan between April 2021 and August 2021. These results are consistent with the results of other MENA countries. Between April 2021 and August 2021 the delay in wage payments has more than doubled; the temporary layoffs/suspension of workers have increased from nearly a tenth in April 2021 to nearly a fifth in August 2021. In August 2021, the employment status of workers in business indicates temporary layoffs/suspension of workers for nearly a fifth of the workers, while permanent layoffs/suspension of workers had reached nearly a tenth of the workers, and the delays and changes in wage payments had accounted for nearly a quarter of the workers.
Attainment of social insurance decreased from nearly a third of all households in April 2021 compared to nearly a quarter of all households in August 2021. Our results concerning the temporary or permanent closures of business due to factors related to COVID-19, the reduction in business working hours, the challenges facing businesses due to loss in demand, and the declining access to customers due to mobility restrictions in Sudan are consistent with the results across other MENA countries. From policy perspectives our findings indicate that the most common types of support in Sudan were business loans, salary subsidies, and reduced/delayed payment of taxes; these results are also consistent with the results in other MENA countries. Our findings regarding the limited provision of social protection (social insurance) and regarding the importance of supporting social protection for workers in Sudan are consistent with the findings in the other MENA countries. The major policy recommendation is for increasing government support to manage COVID-19 economic and social impacts on workers in Sudan.”
The reports on the impacts of COVID-19 and the following other reports on education, digital transformation, and technological capabilities written by Professor Samia Nour were relevant for policymakers in Sudan and in other MENA Region countries:
1. The United Nations Educational, Scientific And Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UNESCO Regional Bureau for Sciences in the Arab States, Consultancy Research Report “Issues of inclusion and capabilities for establishing the knowledge societies and the potential role of open science in the Arab States”, UNESCO Cairo, Egypt, (July – November 2021) (in Arabic).
2. The Islamic World Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICESCO), Consultancy Research Report “Innovation and Technological Aspects in the Islamic World”, Chapter 3 in: ICESCO, “The Possible Futures of the Islamic World in the fields of Education, Sciences, Culture and Technologies”, ICESCO, Rabat, Morocco (April – November 2021).
3. Economic Research Forum (ERF) for Arab countries and Turkey, Research Project in collaboration with South-South Global Thinkers – A Global Coalition of Think Tank Networks for South-South Cooperation (SSC), Dubai International Financial Centre (DIFC), “South-South Cooperation - Technology and Digital Transformation in the Arab Countries”, The Economic Research Forum (ERF) for the Arab countries and Turkey (ERF), Cairo, Egypt (July 2021- January 2022).
4. Economic Research Forum (ERF) for Arab countries and Turkey and the Agence Française de Développement (AFD) Programme Joint Research Project, “The Impact of COVID-19 on Households and Firms in the MENA Region: the case of Sudan”, The Economic Research Forum (ERF) for the Arab countries and Turkey (March 2021– January 2022).
5. Economic Research Forum (ERF) for Arab countries and Turkey and International Labour Organization (ILO), “Second Report on Jobs and Growth in North Africa: the Impact of COVID-19 in North Africa: Sudan Country Chapter (2022)”, Advancing the Decent Work Agenda in North Africa (ADWA) (August 2021 – February 2022), as the part of the ERF-ILO ADWA Project (2020-2023). (Co-authors: Caroline Krafft, Samia Mohamed Nour, and Ebaidalla Mahjoub).
6. Economic Research Forum (ERF) for Arab countries and Turkey and International Labour Organization (ILO), “First Report on Jobs and Growth in North Africa: Sudan Country Chapter (2020)”, Advancing the Decent Work Agenda in North Africa (ADWA) (April 2020 – August 2021), as part of the ERF-ILO ADWA Project (2020-2023). (Co-authors: Ebaidalla Mahjoub and Samia Mohamed Nour).
Links to important partners of these projects:
ERF/Economic Research Forum for Arab countries and Turkey: https://erf.org.eg/
ADWA/Advancing the Decent Work Agenda in North Africa: https://www.ilo.org/africa/technical-cooperation/WCMS_673349/lang--en/index.htm
ICESCO/Islamic World Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: https://www.icesco.org/en/
AFD/Agence Française de Développement: https://www.afd.fr/fr
SERG Discussion Papers at IWIM: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/sudan_economy_research_group/
1 Overview Essays on Sudan and South Sudan/Überblicksaufsätze zum Sudan und zum Südsudan
Professor Karl Wohlmuth has published two essays on Sudan Studies, an overview essay on Sudan and another one on South Sudan. These essays were published in a Handbook Near and Middle East States (see the bibliographic information below). The purpose of the Handbook is it to give a country-wide information on the geography, the history, the culture, the politics, and the economy. Only by such an interdisciplinary approach is it possible to understand current developments and conflict patterns, constellations of ethnic and interest groups, and economic and social perspectives. The editors of the Handbook write in their Foreword about the region: “The present handbook reflects a cultural-geographic understanding of the region that covers North Africa to the southern edge of the Sahara, from Mauritania in the west to Sudan in the east, and also in Asia the entire area from the Arab Peninsula in the south and from Asia Minor in the north over the Iranian highlands to Pakistan.” (Foreword, page 1). Both essays also show the rich history and culture of the Sudan beside of economic and political trends; the Sudan is a country which separated into two independent states (Sudan and South Sudan) in January 9, 2011. As both countries are rich in natural resources, there is a base for a dynamic economic development in both states, if conflicts within the two countries and between the two countries can be solved and avoided.
Inside: New Publications on Sudan and South Sudan
Bibliographic Information.
Bibliographic Information:
Wohlmuth, Karl, 2022, Sudan, pages 323 – 350, in: Handbook Near and Middle East States, Topics: Geography – History – Culture – Politics - Economy, edited by Markus Porsche-Ludwig and Ying-Yu Chen, LIT Asien: Forschung und Wissenschaft/LIT Studies on Asia, Band/Volume 9, ISBN: 978-3-643-91136-0 (pb); ISBN 978-3-643-96136-5 (PDF), LIT Verlag Wien/Zürich 2022; Info: https://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-91136-0
Wohlmuth, Karl, 2022, South Sudan, pages 299 – 321, in: Handbook Near and Middle East States, Topics: Geography – History – Culture – Politics - Economy, edited by Markus Porsche-Ludwig and Ying-Yu Chen, LIT Asien: Forschung und Wissenschaft/LIT Studies on Asia, Band/Volume 9, ISBN: 978-3-643-91136-0 (pb); ISBN 978-3-643-96136-5 (PDF), LIT Verlag Wien/Zürich 2022; Info: https://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-91136-0
2 Das Ende der “Sudanesischen Revolution“: Nach dem Putsch/ The End of the “Sudanese Revolution”: After the Putsch
Professor Karl Wohlmuth hat in einem Vortrag an der Universität Mainz im Januar 2020 und in einer begleitenden Studie die Bürgerbewegung im Sudan analysiert, die im April des Jahres 2019 die 30-jährige Herrschaft von Präsident Al-Bashir beendet hat. Tiefe Skepsis zu den Erfolgsaussichten der „Sudanesischen Revolution“ war der Tenor des Vortrags (vgl. die PDF Wohlmuth-Bürgerbewegung), da es dem gestürzten Präsidenten und seiner Familie, dem Militär und den Milizen in diesen drei Jahrzehnten gelungen war, einen „tiefen Staat“ zu etablieren, also die Wirtschaft, wichtige Unternehmen und viele staatliche Institutionen weitgehend zu kontrollieren und sich in großem Umfang auch Vermögenswerte (Unternehmen, Rechte, natürliche Ressourcen) anzueignen. Die Perspektive einer Zusammenarbeit von Militär/Milizen und zivilen Repräsentanten schien daher wenig aussichtsreich zu sein. Zur Ökonomie der „Sudanesischen Revolution“ wurde von der Kooperationspartnerin des IWIM an der Khartoum University im Sudan, Professor Dr. Samia Nour, eine umfassende Studie publiziert (vgl.): Diskussionsbeiträge der Sudanforschungsgruppe No. 44, Overview of the Sudan Uprising – Before, During and After the Revolution. By: Samia Satti Osman Mohamed Nour, Full Professor of Economics, University of Khartoum, Sudan, June 2020; Link: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/files/dateien/1833_wohlmuth___layout___serg_44___7__2020_samia_b.pdf.
Am 25. Oktober 2021 kam es zu dem von vielen Experten erwarteten Putsch des Militärs gegen die Regierung des Ministerpräsidenten Abdalla Hamdok, die am 21. August 2019 vom Transition Council eingesetzt worden war. Ministerpräsident Abdalla Hamdok wurde wieder eingesetzt, trat nach wenigen Wochen aber zurück, da die Militärmachthaber ihre Zusagen nicht einhielten. In einem Statement nach dem Putsch im Sudan, das der Presse zugänglich gemacht wurde, hat Professor Karl Wohlmuth die Folgen des Putsches für die Wirtschaft, für die Demokratiebewegung, und für die Konflikte im Land und die weitere Region eingeschätzt (vgl. die PDF Wohlmuth-Sudan-10-2021). Vgl. zu der Presse-Berichterstattung zum Statement von Professor Karl Wohlmuth auch den folgenden Beitrag aus russischer Sicht zum Geschehen im Sudan: https://lenta.ru/news/2021/10/26/ukreplenie/.
In zahlreichen Stellungnahmen wurde der Putsch analysiert, und insbesondere wurde auf die Folgewirkungen für den Sudan und für die angrenzenden Länder eingegangen:
Presseinformationen zum Putsch am 25. 10. 2021:
Frankfurter Allgemeine, 25. 10. 2021: „General erklärt Regierung für aufgelöst“, Link: https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/putschversuch-in-sudan-general-erklaert-regierung-fuer-aufgeloest-17601201.html
Tagesspiegel, 25. 10. 2021: „Hafen in Port Sudan blockiert - Putsch mit Ansage“, Link: https://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/hafen-in-port-sudan-blockiert-putsch-mit-ansage/27736696.html
Tagesschau, 25. 10. 2021: „Erneuter Putsch-Sudanesischer Premier festgesetzt“, Link: https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/afrika/sudan-putschversuch-107.html
Analytische Beiträge zur “Sudanesischen Revolution” und zum Putsch:
Gunnar M. Sørbø, December 2020, “Sudan’s Transition: Living in Bad Surroundings”, Sudan Working Paper, Number 4, University of Bergen, CMI/Chr. Michelsen Institute, Link: https://www.cmi.no/publications/7395-sudans-transition-living-in-bad-surroundings
Atta El-Battahani, October 2021, “The role of local resistance committees in Sudan’s transitional period”, CMI/Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2021, Link: https://www.cmi.no/publications/7920-the-role-of-local-resistance-committees-in-sudans-transitional-period
African Arguments, Alex De Waal, October 28, 2021, “General al-Burhan: Illegitimate, Unpatriotic, Untrustworthy, and Not a Leader”, Link: https://africanarguments.org/2021/10/general-al-burhan-illegitimate-unpatriotic-untrustworthy-and-not-a-leader/
African Arguments, Various Co-Signatories, October 27, 2021, “We stand with Sudan’s people and demand more AU, IGAD, UN action”, Link: https://africanarguments.org/2021/10/we-stand-with-sudan-people-and-demand-more-au-igad-un-action/
African Arguments, November 25, 2021, “This Is Not a Coup”: Sudan’s Potemkin Agreement, Link: https://africanarguments.org/2021/11/this-is-not-a-coup-sudans-potemkin-agreement/
Gerrit Kurtz/Philipp Jahn, April 14, 2021, “Sudan: What Comes After The Revolution?”, DGAP/Deutsche Gesellschaft für Auswärtige Politik - External Publications, Link: https://gerritkurtz.net/2021/04/10/what-comes-after-the-revolution/
Abrar Mohamed Ali, Opinion, IDS/Institute of Development Studies, 25 February 2022, “Closing online civic space: protest amid internet shutdowns in Sudan”, Link: https://www.ids.ac.uk/opinions/closing-online-civic-space-protest-amid-internet-shutdowns-in-sudan/
On the role of women in the “Sudanese Revolution”: Case studies for the states of Central Darfur, Blue Nile, Kassala, and River Nile/ Über die Rolle der Frauen in der “Sudanesischen Revolution”: Fallstudien zu den Bundesstaaten Central Darfur, Blue Nile, Kassala und River Nile
Azza Ahmed Abdel Aziz and Aroob Alfaki, 2021, “Shifting Terrains of Political Participation in Sudan”, IDEA/Institute for Democracy And Electoral Assistance, Link: https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/shifting-terrains-of-political-participation-in-sudan.pdf. Bereits jetzt haben sich Status und Rolle der Frauen im Sudan massiv verändert, wenn auch unterschiedlich in verschiedenen States des Sudan. Die politische Partizipation der Frauen ist in einem Transformationsprozess begriffen.
Elke Grawert, Bremen, 13. November 1958 - 5. März 2021
Frau PD Dr. Elke Grawert ist am Freitag, 5. März 2021 nach schwerer Krankheit gestorben. Der Verlust ist überaus groß – für ihre Söhne, ihre FreundInnen, ihre Kollegen. Das IWIM verdankt ihr viele wichtige Initiativen und Forschungsarbeiten, die zur Reputation dieses universitären Instituts wesentlich beigetragen haben. Sie hat sich in weiten Bereichen der Afrika-, Friedens- und Konfliktforschung betätigt, als Forscherin, als Lehrende, als Beraterin, als Netzwerkerin und als einfühlsame Gesprächspartnerin. Sie hat im klassischen Sinne Feldforschung betrieben und inmitten der Bevölkerung im Sudan, in Tansania und in anderen Ländern des Südens gelebt und gearbeitet. Sie hat die lokale Bevölkerung in ihren Haushalten besucht, bei deren täglicher Arbeit begleitet und beobachtet, Frauen und Männer in entlegenen Dörfern interviewt, und intensive Erhebungen zur Lebensweise und Arbeit von Frauen, deren Männer aus Erwerbsgründen migrierten, durchgeführt. In vielen Publikationen von Elke Grawert finden sich diese empirischen Erhebungen in methodisch mustergültiger Weise verarbeitet. Zu ihrer letzten beruflichen Station am BICC (Bonn International Center for Conversion) liegt ein Nachruf vom Direktor des BICC vor. In der Zeit am BICC seit 2010 hat sie sich mit wichtigen Themen der Konflikt- und Friedensforschung befasst. Zu erwähnen sind beispielsweise Arbeiten zur Friedenssicherung in Afghanistan durch konfliktsensitive Beschäftigungsinitiativen und Forschungen zur Verknüpfung von geschäftlichen Interessen des Militärs und der Unternehmen in arabischen Ländern. In ihrer Zeit am BICC hat sie im Juli 2012 an der Universität Bonn die 9th International Sudan Studies Conference ausgerichtet und mehrere hundert Sudanforscherinnen und -forscher aus aller Welt zum wissenschaftlichen Austausch versammelt. Die Tagung wurde ein großer wissenschaftlicher Erfolg.
Vor ihrer Zeit als Senior Research Fellow am BICC war sie in mehreren Funktionen an der Universität Bremen tätig. Sie kooperierte mit dem Forschungsteam von Prof. Dr. Karl Wohlmuth in mehreren Publikations- und Forschungsprojekten zum Sudan und zu anderen afrikanischen Ländern und mit Prof. Dr. Michaela von Freyhold im Rahmen von neu eingerichteten internationalen entwicklungspolitischen Studiengängen. Hier wird über ihre ersten wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten an der Universität Bremen und über ihre Zeit am IWIM (Institut für Weltwirtschaft und Internationales Management) berichtet. Sie gehörte zu den Gründern des African Development Perspectives Yearbook, dem englischsprachigen Afrika-Jahrbuch, das an der Universität Bremen seit1989 herausgegeben wird. Bereits am Band 2 (1990/91) war sie beteiligt - mit einer Unit (einem Themenkomplex mit mehreren Aufsätzen) mit dem Titel „Women’s Participation in the Industrialization Process - Problems and Perspectives“. Am Band 3 (1992/93) war sie mit der Unit “Household Energy Systems” beteiligt, und am Band 7 (1999) mit der Unit „Self-Help, Self-Organization, and Empowerment of Disadvantaged Rural and Urban Population Groups“. Am Band 8 (2000/2001) bearbeitete sie die Unit „African Women in the Globalising Economy“. Die Themen, die sie als Mitarbeiterin bzw. als Mitherausgeberin des Afrika-Jahrbuchs besetzte, hatten mit Partizipation von gesellschaftlichen Gruppen, mit der Stärkung der Position und der Lebens- und Arbeitsbedingungen von Frauen, mit der Rolle von Frauen als Unternehmerinnen, und mit der Förderung der Zivilgesellschaft durch lokale Initiativen zu tun. Sie war ein sehr geschätztes Redaktionsmitglied der Herausgebergruppe des Afrika-Jahrbuchs. Mit ihrem schnell anwachsenden wissenschaftlichen Netzwerk war sie sehr hilfreich bei der Themenfindung und -formulierung.
Frau Elke Grawert wurde aufgrund ihrer Sudanforschungsinteressen nach Bremen eingeladen. In der Sudanforschungsgruppe Bremen hat sie viele Jahre aktiv mitgearbeitet, zahlreiche Forschungsvorhaben angestoßen und viele Publikationen erarbeitet. Sie hat auch ihre Dissertation in Bremen angefertigt. Ihre Bücher und Sammelbände konnte sie immer in erstklassigen Verlagen unterbringen. Die Dissertation mit dem Titel “Making A Living In Rural Sudan. Production of Women, Labour Migration of Men, and Policies for Peasants’ Needs” ist 1998 bei Macmillan Press Ltd erschienen. Sie entwickelte einen Ansatz, in dem sie vier Ebenen integrierte: eine Analyse der ländlichen Entwicklung und der Lebensbedingungen der bäuerlichen Bevölkerung, eine Analyse der Ernährungssicherung, eine Analyse der spezifischen Situation von Frauen in ländlichen Gegenden, und eine Analyse der Migrationsprozesse. Durch moderne Feldforschungsmethoden konnte sie wichtige Ergebnisse erzielen; sie nahm sich immer ausreichend Zeit für ihre Feldforschungsaufenthalte. Für ihre Dissertation etwa war sie von Februar bis September 1988 in Kutum, Nord-Darfur, Sudan, um durch Beobachtung und Interviews Daten für ihre Arbeit zu erheben. Sie lebte dort unter vergleichbaren Bedingungen wie die lokale Bevölkerung, wie die Personen in jenen Haushalten, die sie analysierte. Durch die Beobachtung der Lebens- und Arbeitsbedingungen erarbeitete sie sich ein Verständnis der Struktur der Haushalte und der Arbeitswelt in Kutum, Nord-Darfur; durch Interviews mit Frauen konnte sie deren tägliche Aktivitäten kennenlernen und sich ein Bild von der Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft in Kutum erarbeiten. Ihr Interesse galt vor allem der neuen lokalen Arbeitsteilung und der Arbeitslast der Frauen nach der Erwerbsmigration der Männer. Die präzise Analyse in ihrer Dissertation hat wohl zahlreiche Sudanforscher/Innen angeregt, ihre theoretischen Fragestellungen weiter zu vertiefen.
Aber auch an vielen anderen sudanspezifischen Forschungsarbeiten war Elke Grawert beteiligt. Sie hat etwa ein Forschungsprojekt zur Wanderarbeit im Sahel durchgeführt und 1994 einen wichtigen Band über die Ergebnisse einer Konferenz zu dem Thema veröffentlicht. Der Band über „Wandern oder bleiben? Veränderungen der Lebenssituation von Frauen im Sahel durch die Arbeitsmigration der Männer“ war der Versuch, den Analyserahmen von ihrem Dissertationsthema auch für andere Sahelländer zu nutzen. Die Publikation umfasst Fallstudien in acht verschiedenen Orten von vier Sahelländern mit Ergebnissen dazu, wie sich die Arbeits- und Lebensbedingungen von Frauen durch die Migration der Männer verändern. Die Studien zu Orten im Sudan, in Mali, in Burkina Faso und im Senegal zeigen wichtige Muster und Reaktionsweisen auf, was Frauen erleben und wie Frauen in solchen Situationen reagieren. Die Konferenz und die Publikation zeigen auch die Arbeitsweise von Frau Grawert – Frauen berichten über ihre Feldforschungen bei Frauen in afrikanischen Ländern. Unterbelichtete Bereiche der Migrationsforschung wurden sehr konsequent analysiert; das Material wurde handlungsorientiert aufbereitet. Es ging Frau Grawert immer um Wege, wie Frauen ihre Lage vor Ort verbessern können - die Auswirkungen der Arbeitsmigration auf die Ernährungssicherung, auf die geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung, auf die natürliche Umwelt, und ganz allgemein auf die Handlungsspielräume, die ein Bleiben im Sahel ermöglichen. Auch im Inter-University Centre (IUC) Dubrovnik hat Frau Grawert mehrere Kursprogramme der Universität Bremen bzw. des IWIM unterstützt. Sie nahm gerne die Möglichkeit wahr, als Dozentin bei internationalen Konferenzen über ihre Forschungsergebnisse zu referieren.
Und nun zum Meisterwerk von Elke Grawert. Von größter Bedeutung für die Sudanforschung des IWIM war ihr Engagement für das große Forschungsprojekt „Governance and Social Action in Sudan after the Peace Agreement of January 2005: Local, National, and Regional Dimensions“, das großzügig von der VolkswagenStiftung gefördert wurde. Dieses Forschungsprojekt sollte unmittelbar nach dem Friedensabkommen vom Januar 2005 die Regierungsführung im Sudan durch wissenschaftliche Expertise, durch Ausbildungsprogramme und durch Beratung unterstützen. Die Friedensvereinbarungen zwischen der südsudanesischen Befreiungsfront SPLM und der sudanesischen Regierung in Khartum waren bedeutsam, mussten aber durch internationale solidarische Aktionen unterstützt und stabilisiert werden. Das Projekt startete unmittelbar nach dem Friedensabkommen vom 9. Januar 2005 und endete erst im September 2012 mit der Übergabe des Endberichtes an die VolkswagenStiftung; immer wieder wurde das Projekt verlängert, auch um die Zeit nach der Unabhängigkeit des Südsudan (9. Januar 2011) noch einzubeziehen. Das Projekt war nicht nur ein Forschungsprojekt, sondern auch ein Ausbildungsprojekt, da auch Masterstudien und Doktoratsstudien im Sudan, in Kenia und in Äthiopien gefördert wurden. Die StudentInnen arbeiteten zu Themen, die mit der Umsetzung des Friedensabkommens im Zusammenhang standen. Die Nachbarländer des Sudan (Kenia und Äthiopien) wurden einbezogen, weil Millionen von sudanesischen Flüchtlingen in Lagern dieser Länder lebten und auf eine geordnete Rückführung in ihre Heimatgebiete hofften. Dieses Projekt hat wichtige Forschungen zum Sudan angeregt, insbesondere hinsichtlich der Chancen für einen Neustart der Beziehungen zwischen dem von der SPLM kontrollierten autonomen und dann unabhängigen Südsudan und der Regierung des Sudan unter Präsident Al-Bashir in Khartum. Das Netzwerk der Bremer Sudanforschung wurde durch das Projekt stark ausgeweitet. Das Projekt war aber auch ein Beratungsprojekt, da Regierungsbehörden im Sudan/Südsudan und UN-Organisationen durchaus an den Ergebnissen der Forschungsarbeit interessiert waren. Frau Grawert hat die Funktion als Projektkoordinatorin akribisch ausgefüllt; die wissenschaftliche und die organisatorische Koordination klappte vorbildlich. Die afrikanischen Wissenschaftler wurden sehr gut in die Projektarbeit integriert, und eine Vielzahl von Publikationen wurde zum Projektthema verfasst. Frau Grawert hat sich intensiv darum bemüht, afrikanischen Nachwuchswissenschaftler/Innen aus den Projektländern Publikationschancen zu bieten.
Wir werden Elke Grawert dankbar in Erinnerung behalten.
Professor Dr. Karl Wohlmuth
IWIM, Fachbereich Wirtschaftswissenschaft,
Universität Bremen
The Sudan Research Group (SRG) has now released its conference report on the first conference held in Khartoum, Sudan which took place some months after the Sudanese Revolution and the instalment of the Transitional Government. The title of the report is “Towards Sustainable Inclusive Development in Sudan“. The participants were divided into eight clusters to discuss 31 papers around the Conference’s main themes: 1- Macroeconomic Management for Inclusive Development; 2- Bringing the Productive Sectors back in Sudan; 3- Governance and Institutions; 4- Management of Natural Resources; 5- Sustainable Infra-Structure; 6- Social Policy and Public Service Delivery; 7- The Role of the Private Sector; and 8- Gender. The Report was published in 2020 and contains Recommendations on Macroeconomic Issues, Reviving the Productive Sectors, Governance and Institutions, The Management of Natural Resources, Sustainable Infrastructure, Social Policy and Public Service Delivery, and the Private Sector. There are specific recommendations to the Transitional Government, to the Ministry of Finance and to other competent ministries, to International Donors, and to Civil Society Organizations. The full report contains information about all the clusters of the conference.
The Sudan Research Group (SRG) writes about its mandate: “The Sudan Research Group is a UK-based voluntary organization. It was formed in 2003 by a group of academics and researchers who felt a pressing need for a specialized network that brings together multidisciplinary academics, researchers, activists and policy makers in a forum devoted to in-depth discussions of the key and pressing issues that face the country. Dedicated to impact, it aims to produce and promote research and scholarship that may inform home-grown policies to address the country’s urgent economic, political, and social needs.” And the SRG reports about the conferences: “The main conferences and events organized by the Group so far include “Economic Challenges in Post-conflict Sudan” (2004), “Institutional and Governance Requirements for the Future Development of Sudan” ( 2005 ), “Education and Capacity Building” (2006), “Assessing the Peace-building in Darfur”, (2008), “General Education Crisis in Sudan” (with an Open Themes Group), (2016), Training in Communication for Sudanese NGOs” (2019), and a series of Webinars.” Then, “Towards Sustainable Inclusive Development in Sudan” (2019) was the first conference that SRG was able to convene in Sudan after the Sudanese Revolution which started in December 2018. It was convened for June 2019, but was then postponed to November 2019 (SRG 5TH Meeting Tentative Agenda).
Contact Information about SRG: Email address: Info@Sudanresearchgroup.org; Website: www.sudanresearchgroup.org
About the Report on the SRG Conference November 2019 in Khartoum, Sudan: “The Sudan Research Group (SRG) is pleased to introduce a summary of the proceedings of its Fifth Conference, with the title “Towards Sustainable Inclusive Development in Sudan”. Held only three months after the formation of the Transitional Government that followed the end of three decades of dictatorship, the conference sought to provide a neutral space for open discussions that help in shaping the agenda for change. More than 160 researchers, policy makers, private sector and civil society participants engaged in three days of constructive - and sometimes heated debate - about immediate reform programs and long -term development policies. This report provides a brief summary of the discussions on the key themes of the conference and its substantive findings. It should be noted that the messages and ideas summarized are not intended to indicate a consensus and they do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the SRG”. The report is available for download as a PDF under: Final SRG 5th Conf. 2019. Professor Karl Wohlmuth had the privilege to be invited to the conference as a speaker for the cluster Infrastructure. Professor Wohlmuth follows the studies and projects of the SRG carefully.
Dr. Gamal Al-Tayib from UNECA in Addis Ababa is one of the founders of the SRG.
Another important development about Sudan as two thinktanks are cooperating: SRG is joined by SWEA in development work
In the new Sudan independent NGOs can be founded and have space for action. SWEA (see below) is now ready to mobilise the women economists. There are links between SRG and SWEA. SERG in Bremen is cooperating with these groups.
Sudanese Women Economists Association (SWEA): Empowering the Women in the Peripheries through Capacity Building Projects
Women economists work together for a peaceful and prospering Sudan. Sawsan Musa Adam Abdul-Jalil from the Ministry of Finance in Khartoum, Sudan is a co-founder of the Sudanese Women Economists Association (SWEA). SWEA was founded in June 2020. SWEA is collaborating with the Sudan Research Group (SRG) in a capacity building project. The first (and so far the only) project was an online training on a research proposal writing for the students of Nayala, El Fahser, Gedaref and Kassala, but much more is in the pipeline. Sawsan Musa Adam Abdul-Jalil from the Ministry of Finance in Khartoum, Sudan is working now with the Aid Coordination Unit of the Ministry to restructure their strategy. We cooperate from the SERG in Bremen with SRG and SWEA to learn more about the reforms ongoing in Sudan and to support the process of change in the country. It is intended to cooperate on the new Yearbook project of the Research Group on African Development Perspectives Bremen (see the International Call for Papers Volume 23).
The Sudanese Women Economists Association (SWEA) is becoming an important partner for democratic development, inclusive growth, and economic change in Sudan.
Source: Website SWEA
About the Mandate of SWEA:
“The Sudanese Women Economists Association (SWEA) was founded in June 2020, on the ground of redeeming the prevalent gap of women economists participation in the policy and academic spheres in Sudan. Fuelled by the enthusiasm of its founders and members, SWEA aims at building capacities, encouraging and amplifying the contribution of women economists, and of young women pursuing degrees in economics. SWEA strives to achieve this by providing a platform to convene Sudanese women economists, offering networking opportunities and enriching the economic research space by the contributions from its members.”
The Vision of SWEA:
“SWEA’s vision is to advance Sudanese women economists’ participation in academic and public policy spheres in Sudan. Our aim is to promote solidarity between Sudanese women economists across generations, as a key step to build capacity of young women in economics and to amplify the voices of Sudanese women in economic research and practice.”
Contact:
The website of SWEA is: https://sweasd.org.
Source: Website SWEA
Professor Samia Nour from the University of Khartoum, Sudan has published (in cooperation with Dr. Eltayeb Mohamedain) a working paper and two policy briefs on Food Security and Agricultural Development in Kassala State, Sudan. These are publications of the CMI (Chr. Michelsen Institute). The CMI Sudan Working paper Number 1 (21 July 2020) and the two CMI Policy Briefs (21 July 2020) are of interest as the focus is on research done by regional universities and for advice to policymakers in peripheral regions in Sudan. The two policy briefs are based on the findings in the CMI Sudan working paper number 1 (21 July 2020) that analyses agricultural development and food security with the use of survey data from Kassala State. This research is conducted as part of the Agriculture and Food Security cluster in the Assisting Regional Universities in Sudan (ARUS) programme. The ARUS programme is a collaboration between CMI, the University of Khartoum, Ahfad University for Women, the University of Bergen, and several regional universities in Sudan. The programme is funded by the Norwegian Embassy in Khartoum. The importance of these studies is that regional universities in Sudan are participating, and that key issues of peripheral areas like food security and agricultural development are more deeply researched.
Professor Samia Nour is now also Book Reviews/Book Notes Editor of the African Development Perspectives Yearbook. She has advised the editors of volumes 20 (2018) and 21 (2019) and is Unit editor and Volume Editor for volume 22 (2020/21). She is also collaborating with various international research organisations. She has recently published in the SERG discussion papers of IWIM on Sudan’s revolution (see Number 44 of the SERG discussion papers with the title: “Overview of the Sudan Uprising”: http://www.iwim.uni-bremen.de/sudan_economy_research_group/).
Access to these three CMI publications (see links below) which are co-authored by Professor Samia Nour:
CMI Sudan Working Paper Number 1: “Food Security and Agricultural Development in Sudan: The case of Kassala State”, CMI Sudan Working Paper Number 1, CMI (Chr. Michelsen Institute), Bergen, Norway, 21 July 2020, pp. 1-113. Link: Food Security and Agricultural Development in Sudan: The case of Kassala State
See the Abstract (shortened) below.
Sudan CMI Policy Brief Number 3: “Food Insecurity in Sudan as seen from Kassala State ”, Sudan CMI Policy Brief Number 3, CMI (Chr. Michelsen Institute), Bergen, Norway, 21 July 2020, pp. 1-4. Link: Food Insecurity in Sudan as seen from Kassala State
“This policy brief discusses the incidence of food insecurity, explores families’ survival strategies, and recommends measures that may combat food insecurity.”
Sudan CMI Policy Brief 4: “Agricultural development and food Security in Sudan as seen from Kassala State”, Sudan CMI Policy Brief Number 4, CMI (Chr. Michelsen Institute), Bergen, Norway, 21 July 2020, pp. 1-4. Link: Agricultural development and food Security in Sudan as seen from Kassala State
“This policy brief uses data from Kassala State to assess the close link between agricultural development and food security, and investigates factors and policies that can strengthen agricultural development, thereby increasing food security in Sudan.”
Abstract (shortened) of Sudan Working Paper 1, 21 July 2020
Food Security and Agricultural Development in Sudan: The case of Kassala State,
by Prof. Dr. Samia Mohamed Nour and Dr. Eltayeb Mohamedain, Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute (Sudan Working Paper 2020:1)
This research discusses the relationship between agricultural development and food security, the determinants of the supply of food and of the demand for food, and the determinants of food insecurity in Kassala State. In so doing, it provides a significant contribution to the current literature. Used are new primary data from a Food Security Household Survey which was conducted in Kassala State (2019). It was found that the majority of households are food insecure (77%), out of which 32.9% of the households are severely food insecure, while fewer households are fully food secure (23%). There is a large variation in households' food insecurity between localities, with rural Kassala having most of the food insecure households. This may be explained by the variation in monthly income between localities.Three hypotheses are examined. A first hypothesis is verified that the most significant determinants of production of food are the size of agricultural land, the available livestock, and the irrigation systems. There is support for the second hypothesis that the family's own production of food and the household income have positive effects on food consumption. It is found that the significant determinants of the production of sorghum (the main staple food) are the size of agricultural land and the available livestock, and that the significant determinants of consumption of sorghum are the family's own production of sorghum, the household income, and the family size. For small farmers, their own consumption of sorghum is to a larger extent determined by their own production of sorghum. Therefore, enhancing production of sorghum among smallholders would contribute to enhancing consumption of sorghum and hence supporting food security. The third hypothesis is verified that better working conditions of the farmers are crucial for family own production of food and are then supporting food security; the probabilities of households being food secure increase with better working conditions for higher family own production .
Investigating the gender gap related to food production and food security has led to the results that male-headed households produce more food and are more food secure than female-headed households. Some reasons for this observation are analyzed. Also, it was found out that agricultural production is impeded by the lack of agricultural land, the cultivation of only few crops, an insufficient irrigation system, and shortages of agricultural services, which are mainly related to the provision of agricultural technology. Therefore, the major policy implication is that measures aimed at increasing household incomes and enhancing family own production of food are important for eliminating food insecurity. Recommended are therefore policies that may increase household incomes and may enhance smallholders' own production of food. Relevant policy instruments may be increases of agricultural land ownership, increases of the size of cultivated land for smallholders, more diversification of agricultural food crops, an improvement of irrigation systems, measures for enhancing female participation in agricultural activities and food security, steps towards improvement of agricultural services, mainly related to the adoption of technology, improving access to clean drinking water and proper sanitation systems, and, in general terms, improved infrastructure which may help in access to food, to inputs, and to production requirements.